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Minggu, 19 April 2015

FAKTA MERUPAKAN UNSUR DARI PENALARAN ILMIAH

Penalaran adalah proses berfikir yang bertolak dari pengamatan indera (pengamatan empirik) yang menghasilkan sejumlah konsep dan pengertian. Berdasarkan pengamatan yang sejenis juga akan terbentuk proposisi-proposisi yang sejenis, berdasarkan sejumlah proposisi yang diketahui atau dianggap benar, orang menyimpulkan sebuah proposisi baru yang sebelumnya tidak diketahui. Proses inilah yang disebut dengan menalar.

Keperluan unsur dasar untuk penalaran adalah data sebagai fakta. Seseorang yang menalar akan perlu memiliki pengetahuan tentang data. Data yang ada perlu dipilah menurut kriteria analisis tertentu.

Untuk menyampaikan ungkapan atau suatu penalaran ilmiah, seseorang itu perlu memiliki kemampuan menalar. Terdapat beberapa prinsip penalaran berkaitan dengan penalran ilmiah, yaitu Principium identity, Principium contradictions, Principium exclusi tertii, Principium rations suficients, dan Principium individuations. Melalui proses penalaran ilmiah akan dihasilkan asumsi, hipotesis, teori dan formulasi untuk mencapai simpulan.

Jenis-jenis Penalaran Ilmiah
1.    Penalaran Induktif
Merupakan penalaran untuk sampai pada suatu keputusan yang berawal dari data khusus yang dikembangkan menjadi kesimpulan umum yang mampu dikembangkan menjadi kesimpulan umum yang  mampu menjelaskan hubungan antara faktor-faktor yang diaamati itu.

Proses induksi :
-  Generalisasi : proses penalaran yang menyadarkan pada pernyataan tertentu untuk memperoleh sejumlah gejala yang dianggap serupa.
-  Analogi : proses penalaran didasarkan pada cara membandingkan dua hal yang mempunya sifat-sifat yang sama.
-  Hubungan Sebab Akibat

Penalaran induktif lebih berperan dalam ilmu pengetahuan karena penalaran tersebeut dapat membuka peluang untuk teori-teori yang baru.


2.    Penalaran Deduktif
Merupakan peritmbangan dan dasar menurut prinsip tertentu, kaidah ataupun teori yang berlaku umum kepada sesuatu yang khusus.
Deduktif tidak menghasilkan kaidah yang baru ataupun terobosan penting dalam ilmu pengetahuan.
Upaya penalaran deduktif dengan menarik simpulan adalah didasarkan pada premis, yaitu pernyataan dasar, yang memberi simpulannya sebagaimana terkandung dalam premis tersebut (ada premis mayor dan premis minor).
Simpulan yang dicapai dengan penalran deduktif sudah dibatasi pada kaidah awalnya yang dengna demikian simpulan itu adalah benar selama kaidah yang digunakan adalah benar.
Adapun ciri-ciri dari penalaran yaitu dilakukan dengan sadar, didasarkan atas sesuatu yang sudah diketahui, sistematis, terarah bertujuan, menghasilkan kesimpulan berupa pengetahuan keputusan dan sikap yang baru, sadar tujuan, premis berupa pengalaman atau pengetahuan, pola pemmikiran tertentu, dan sifat empiris rasional.

Penalaran juga merupakan aktifitas pikiran yang abstrak, untuk mewujudkannya diperlukan simbol. Simbol atau lambang yang digunakan dalam penalaran berbentuk bahasa, sehingga wujud penalaran berbentuk bahasa, sehingga wujud penalaran akan berupa argumen.

Kesimpulannya adalah pernyataan ataupun konsep adalah abstrak dengan simbol berupa kata, sedangkan untuk proposisi simbol yang digunakan adalah kalimat (kalimat berita) dan penalaran mengguanakan simbol berupa argumen. Argumenlah yang dapat menentukan kebenaran konklusi dari premis.

Salah nalar dapat terjadi di dalam proses berfiki untuk pengambilan keputusan. Hal ini terjadi karena ada kesalahan pada cara penarikan kesimpulan. Salah nalar lebih dari kesalahan karena gagasan, struktur kalimat dan karena dorongan emosi.



SUMBER :

1.        kartikagustina.blogspot.in/2013/04/pengertian-penalaran.html?m=1
2.        id.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penalaran
3.        nurii-thaa.blogspot.in/2014/03/konsep-penalaran-ilmiah-dalam-penulisan.html?m=1

4.        share.ciputra.ac.id/Departement/Students/feh/BI/Pak%20ANDI%20-20%%BAHASA%202.ppt

Sabtu, 11 April 2015

SOFTSKILL BAHASA INGGRIS BISNIS 2

TASK 1 (SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT AND MODIFIER)
Tanggal : 12 April 2015

1.    UNDERSTANDING OF THE SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT AND MODIFIER

Subject is a noun, pronoun, or other words that can be classified into noun or pronoun. The subject is the person or thing doing the action, and the subject usually precedes the verb.

Verb  is a function word to indicate the action of the subject, showing events or circumstances. Verb is one of the eight parts of speech.

Complement is a word or group of words that completes the meaning of the subject, verb, or object.

Modifier is a word, phrase, and clause that functions as an adjective or adverb that describes another word or group of words.


2.    EXAMPLE SENTENCES OF THE SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT AND MODIFIER

Fadil and Adit  /  were eating  /     noodles      /  an hour ago .
    Subject              Verb           Complement       Modifier

My Mom  /  is cooking  /   breakfast   /   this morning .
 Subject          Verb        Complement       Modifier

Metty     / should have bought /        book       /    yesterday .
Subject             Verb                Complement       Modifier


Source :
http://www.wordsmile.com/pengertian-contoh-kalimat-modifier-inggris

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TASK 2 (VERB PHRASES AND TENSES)
Tanggal : 12 April 2015

1.    VERB PHRASES

Verb Phrases based on traditional grammar is a group of words in the form of the main verb and the auxiliary verb. While based on generative grammar is a predicate - main verb and all the elements that make it up: the auxiliary verb, complement (object sentences), and / or modifier, but not including the subject of the sentence.
On traditional grammar : Main Verb
On generative gramamar : +/- auxiliary verb + main verb +/- complement +/- modifier


2.    EXAMPLE SENTENCES OF THE VERB PHRASES

He cooks without oil.
· Traditional grammar : cooks
· Generative grammar : cooks without oil


3.    TENSES

Tense is a verb form that indicates an action or activity. Type of tenses is :
a.    Simple Present Tense
b.    Present Continous Tense
c.    Present Perfect Tense
d.   Present Perfect Continous Tense
e.    Simple Past Tense
f.     Past Continous Tense
g.    Past Perfect Tense
h.    Past Perfect Continous Tense
i.      Present Future Tense
j.      Future Continous Tense
k.    Present Future Perfect Tense
l.      Present Future Perfect Continous Tense
m.  Simple Past Future Tense
n.    Past Future Continous Tense
o.    Past Future Perfect Tense
p.    Past Future Perfect Continous Tense

4.    EXAMPLE SENTENCES OF THE TENSES

Simple Present Tense :
    I      /        am          /    very sad  .
Subject   To be (am/are)  Complement

Simple Past Tense :
    I      /  appologized / to Mira .
Subject        Verb 2       Object

Source :
Joanna Adia. 2011. Langsung Bisa Menguasai GRAMMAR. Agobos.

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TASK 3 (SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT)
 Tanggal : 25 April 2015


Subject-verb agreement is the adjustment between the verb with the subject in terms of number, namely : singular or plural. Subjects can be a noun, pronoun, or other constructions acting as a noun, such as the gerund and the infinitive. Basically, singular subjectusing a singular verb, while plural subjectusing a plural verb.

Example of singular subject :
        She          is a girl.
Singular subject

Example of plural subject :
      You        are a student.
Plural subject


Source :


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TASK 4 (PRONOUNS)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015 


A pronoun usually refers to something already mentioned in a sentence or piece of text. A pronoun is a word that substitutes a noun or noun phrase used to prevent repetition of the noun to which they refer. One of the most common pronouns is it.

Rule for pronouns : a pronoun must agree with the noun it refer. Therefore, if the noun is singular, therefore the pronoun must be singular. If the noun is plural, use a plural pronoun. If the noun is feminine, use a feminine pronoun. and so on.
Example:
The plane was on time, it had been arrived.
The planes were on time, they had been arrived.

Source :


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TASK 5 (VERB AS COMPLEMENT)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015 


Verb as complement is a direct objector indirect objectof an action verb. Such objects can be either a noun, pronoun, or other constructions acting as noun, such as : gerund, infinitive, and the noun clause.
Example :
I love cooking a cake
    Gerund

Source :

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TASK 6 (AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE AGREEMENT, NEGATION, COMMANDS)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015


1.    Affirmative and Negative Agreement

When indicating that one person pr thing does something and then adding that another does the same. Use the word so or too. To avoid needless repetition of words from the affirmative statement, use the conjunction and followed by a simple statement using so or too. The order of this statement will depend on whether so or too is used.
Example :
I will bake a cake now. Tina will bake a cake now.
·      I will bake a cake now and tina will too
·      I will bake a cake now and so will tina

Either and Neither function in simple statements much like so and too in affirmative sentences. However, either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement. The same rules for auxiliaries, be and do, does, or did apply.
Exmple :
I didn’t talking to my mother this morning and my sister didn’t either

2.    Negation

To make a sentence negative, add the negative particle not after the auxiliary or verb be. If there is no auxiliary or be, add the appropriate form of do, does, or did and place in word not after that.
Example :
I likes a soda   à   I don’t like a soda

3.    Commands

A command is an imperative statement. One person orders another to do something. It can be preceded by please. The understood subject is you. Use the simple form of the verb.
Example :
Please close the door!

Source :


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TASK 7 (MODAL AUXILIARIES)
 Tanggal : 25 April 2015


Modal Auxiliaries are auxiliary verbs such as will, may, can, could, should, would, is used for, need to be used in conjunction with the main verb to express the nuances of time and mood. Combination helping verbs with main verbs creates what is called a verb or verb phrase string. The word kind of work is a verb which helps verbs (verb) expressed several meanings such as liability, possible, permission, ability.
Example :
I can do the cook

Source :

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TASK 8 (ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015


1.    Adjectives

Adjective is a word used to add meaning to the noun or a word that describes a noun.
Example :
I am quick writer
    Adjective


2.    Advebs

Adverb is give explanations on all other words except nouns. In general adverb from an adjective can be formed by adding -ly behind adjectives. But this rule does not apply to all adjectives.
Example :
I writes quickly
           Adverbs

Source :
Joanna Adia. 2011. Langsung Bisa Menguasai GRAMMAR. Agobos.

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TASK 9 (CONNECTORS)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015 

The mean of coordinate connector is and, but, or, so. Many sentences in English that consists of two clauses (clauses is a group of words which consist of at least one and one Verb Subject (predicate). When there are two sentences in English, we have to combine it with the right. One way to combine the two clauses is to use and, but, or, so.
Example :
The sun was shining, but it was very hot

Source :

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TASK 10 (PASSIVE VOICE, CAUSATIVE HAVE)
 Tanggal : 25 April 2015


1.    Passive Voice

Passive voice sentences the subject is subject to the action of the verb, or phrase that describes what happens to the subject of the sentence, while the active sentence is a sentence that states the subject of the sentence does what.
Example :
My diamond was stolen


2.    Causative Have

Effective or operating as a cause or agent <causative bacteria of cholera>. Expressing causation, specifically :  being a linguistic form that indicates that the subject causes an act to be performed or a condition to come into being.
Example :
I cleaned my room


Source :

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TASK 11 (RELATIVE CLAUSE)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015


Relative clause is part of the sentences (clause) which specifies the person or thing that precedes it. The term relative clauses with adjective clause. Mentioned adjective clause because he explains things or people that preceded them. Mentioned relative clause because connect (me-Relate) the thing or person is the phrase on the back. Relative clauses begin with the preposisition who, whom, whose, which, that, with, the following functions :
Who : describe the person as a subject
Whom : present state of the object (replace me, you, us, him, her, them, it)
Whose : describing people as owners (replacing my, your, our, his, her, their, its)
Which : describing things as subject or object
That : explains a good person or thing as the subject or object

Example :
The man is walking on the road.
He is my father.
= The man who is walking on the road is my father.
         Relative Clause

Source :

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TASK 12 (STYLE IN WRITEN ENGLISH)
Tanggal : 25 April 2015 

Bellow are 8 Tips to improve your english writting skills :
1.    Keep All of your Writing in One Place
Buy a notebook or journal or start an electronic journal. By keeping your writing all in the same place, you will be able to see how much you are improving and keep it organized.
2.    Practice Writing in English Daily
The importance of writing daily is that you start to create a new habit. Writing every day in English will soon become natural and something you look forward to. You will not see a significant improvement if you are not dedicated to becoming a better writer in English. You cannot create awesome stories and papers if you never try.
3.    Pick a Topic and WRITE!
Don’t get stuck on figuring out what to write about. You can write about anything. You can write about what you do, things you hear or see, news, or make up a story. If you do get stuck, use some of English Tonight’s writing prompts to help you get started.
4.    Write More than One Draft
Draft means a preliminary version of piece of writing. Sometimes, your best writing becomes better after you take a break and work on a second or third draft. When you revise (or rewrite) your work you are often able to get your message across more clearly. You make think of things that you did not think to write in the first draft and you can add it in a later draft.
5.    Use Online Resources to Correct your Grammar
Yes, grammar is a pain. You don’t need to know everything about English grammar. Use online resources, such as Grammarly, GrammarCheck or GrammarBook.com to help you answer a grammar question when it comes up. You could also switch the spell and grammar check on MS Word, your iPad or Google Doc to check your spelling and grammar in English.
6.    Think Outside the Box (or Lines)
Don’t write about the same thing every day or you will get bored. Try writing the same story from different perspectives or different tenses. If you are writing a story about a baby that won’t stop crying; first, it could be the mother telling the story; then from the perspective of the baby. Or you could write it in present moment…. ‘My baby hasn’t stopped crying in five days…’ and then write in the perspective of a pregnant woman that is thinking about having a baby that won’t stop crying. Don’t write about topics in the obvious way. Be creative!
7.    Have a Friend Edit Your Writing
Have a friend that knows English correct or edit your work. Having another person read your work helps generate more ideas to better your writing. You could have them edit everything or just a part that you are stuck on. Often having another set of eyes look at your writing helps find mistakes that you have overlooked.
8.    Find the Best Place for You to Write
You should try writing in different places or at different times of the day. Maybe you have writer’s block at night; try getting up 15 minutes earlier and writing in the morning. Maybe you have trouble writing where there is a lot of noise; try writing in a quiet and comfortable place. Experiment in finding the right (or write?) environment for you to write.

Source :

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TASK 13 (STYLE IN WRITEN ENGLISH)
 Tanggal : 25 April 2015


How to Improve Your Writing :
1.    Write, write, write!
I think to improve your writing you really need to write something in English more or less every day. In my experience, it's best not to be too hard on yourself, but just write a few lines about what you did or about your opinion of something. If you're studying for an exam, you probably need to do more writing, perhaps writing the answer to an exam question at least twice a week.

2.    Get your writing checked.
If you attend an English class, ask your teacher who will probably be happy to help. Otherwise you could try, which both offer free corrections.

3.    Learn the correct version.
When you find a mistake in your writing, it's a good idea to learn the correct version by heart. Otherwise it's easy to keep making the same mistakes (I know!). I like to use flashcard software like Anki to do this. You can also practise any grammar points that you make mistakes with here.

4.    Keep adding phrases to your vocabulary.
You also need to keep reading (more about reading here) and studying vocabulary to gradually make your language more sophisticated. I strongly recommend studying collocations as much as possible rather than single words when you're learning vocabulary (more about collocations here).

5.    Take care when you're writing.
Finally, I often see writing that could be improved by taking care about very basic things. Easy ways to make your writing better include making sure that you've used capital letters and full stops where you need them and checking your spelling. Also, it's not a good idea to use abbreviations like 'u' instead of 'you' (except possibly in very, very informal text messages if you are a teenager).

Source :

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TASK 14 (PROBLEM VOCABBULARY AND PREPOSITION)


The transition from spoken to written language can often be a bumpy one because the way we talk tends to be a lot less formal than the way we write. When we try to translate spoken ideas into writing, it is often hard to remember correct grammar. Also, we hear incorrect grammar used so often that correct grammar might sound odd or even wrong to us.

Homonyms can present an especially difficult problem because they sound alike, but the different spellings mean different things. Changing one letter in a word could alter the whole meaning of a sentence. Common phrases are also likely to be written incorrectly because in speech words are often shortened or slurred together so that not all of the letters are pronounced, making it easy to inadvertently leave these letters out when writing.

Knowing which word to use or how to write a phrase correctly can make a big difference in your writing. It is easier for readers to take a piece of writing more seriously when the grammar is correct. This handout contains a list of commonly confused homonyms and problem phrases, as well as a few hints to help you remember the grammar rules.

Words that sound alike (homonyms):

We have selected the ones we see in the Writing Center most often. For a complete list of homonyms you may click here.

Accept, Except:

Accept is a verb meaning to receive. Except is usually a preposition meaning excluding. I will accept all the packages except that one. Except is also a verb meaning to exclude. Please except that item from the list.

Affect, Effect:

Affect is usually a verb meaning to influence.  Effect is usually a noun meaning result. The drug did not affect the disease, and it had several adverse side effects. Effect can also be a verb meaning to bring about. Only the president can effect such a dramatic change.

Allusion, Illusion:

An Allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a misconception or false impression. Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare? Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth.

Capital, Capitol:

Capital refers to a city, capitol to a building where lawmakers meet. Capital also refers to wealth or resources. The capitol has undergone extensive renovations. The residents of the state capital protested the development plans.

Climactic, Climatic:

Climactic is derived from climax, the point of greatest intensity in a series or progression of events. Climatic is derived from climate; it refers to meteorological conditions. The climactic period in the dinosaurs' reign was reached just before severe climatic conditions brought on the ice age.

Elicit, Illicit:

Elicit is a verb meaning to bring out or to evoke. Illicit is an adjective meaning unlawful. The reporter was unable to elicit information from the police about illicit drug traffic.

Emigrate from, Immigrate to:

Emigrate means to leave one country or region to settle in another. In 1900, my grandfather emigrated from Russia. Immigrate means to enter another country and reside there. Many Mexicans immigrate to the U.S. to find work.

Hints:

Emigrate begins with the letter E, as does Exit. When you emigrate, you exit a country.

Immigrate begins with the letter I, as does In. When you immigrate, you go into a country

Principle, Principal:

Principal is a noun meaning the head of a school or an organization or a sum of money. Principle is a noun meaning a basic truth or law. The principal taught us many important life principles.

Hint:

To recognize the spelling of Principal first think of yourself as a greedy opportunist. You definitely would want to be a pal of anyone who is in a position of power or anything to do with money. This principal has pal in it.

Than, Then:

Than is a conjunction used in comparisons; then is an adverb denoting time. That pizza is more than I can eat. Tom laughed, and then we recognized him.

Hints:

Than is used to compare; both words have the letter a in them.

Then tells when; both are spelled the same, except for the first letter.

There, Their, They're:

There is an adverb specifying place; it is also an expletive. Adverb:   Sylvia is lying there unconscious. Expletive: There are two plums left. Their is a possessive pronoun. They're is a contraction of they are. Fred and Jane finally washed their car. They're later than usual today.

Hints:

If you are using there to tell the reader where, both words have h-e-r-e. Here is also a place.

If you are using their as a possessive pronoun, you are telling the reader what
"they own. Their has h-e-i-r, which also means heir, as in someone who inherits something. Both words have to do with ownership.

They're is a contraction of they are. Sound out they are in the sentence and see if it works. If it does not, it must be one of the previous versions.

To, Too, Two:

To is a preposition; too is an adverb; two is a number.  Too many of your shots slice to the left, but the last two were right on the mark.

Hints:

If you are trying to spell out the number, it is always t-w-o.   Two has a w which is the first letter in word. The opposite of word is number.

Too is usually used as  also when adding or including some additional information. Whenever you want to include something else, think of it as adding;  therefore you
also need to add an extra  o.

Your, You're:

Your is a possessive pronoun; you're is a contraction of you are. You're going to catch a cold if you don't wear your coat.

Hints:

Sound out you are in the sentence. If it works in the sentence it can be written as
you're. If it sounds awkward, it is probably supposed to be   Your.

EXAMPLE: You're shoes are muddy. "You are shoes are muddy" does not work, so
it should be written as: Your shoes are muddy.

Words that don't sound alike but confuse us anyway:

Lie, Lay:

Lie is an intransitive verb meaning to recline or rest on a surface. Its principal parts are lie, lay, lain. Lay is a transitive verb meaning to put or place. Its principal parts are lay, laid.

Hint: Chickens lay eggs. I lie down when I am tired.

Set, Sit:

Set is a transitive verb meaning to put or to place. Its principal parts are set, set, set. Sit is an intransitive verb meaning to be seated. Its principal parts are sit, sat, sat. She set the dough in a warm corner of the kitchen. The cat sat in the warmest part of the room.

Who, Which, That:

Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people. I just saw a boy who was wearing a yellow banana costume. I have to go to math next, which is my hardest class. Where is the book that I was reading?

Problem phrases:

Supposed to: Do not omit the d. Suppose to is incorrect.

Used to: Same as above. Do not write use to.

Toward: There is no s at the end of the word.

Anyway: Also has no ending s. Anyways is nonstandard.

Couldn't care less: Be sure to make it negative. (Not I could care less.)

All walks of life: Not woks of life. This phrase does not apply to oriental cooking.

Chest of drawers: Not chester drawers.

For all intents and purposes: Not intensive purposes.


Source :


Nama  : Nur Fitriani
NPM  : 15212457
Kelas  : 4EA13
Dosen : Ricky Perdana, SKOM., MSAS